Now come with me back to 1937, when it all started. A Bell Laboratories scientist named George Stibitz built a demonstration adder that he called the Model K because he made it on his kitchen table. It was a simple demonstration circuit that, in their words, “provided proof of concept for applying Boolean logic to the design of computers.”
Now come with me a couple of years later to 1939, when Hewlett-Packard was founded. Their first product was the HP 200A Audio Oscillator, and when it came out it became a popular piece of testing equipment. Walt Disney Pictures bought eight of their second model, the 200B, to test the recording and speaker systems for the 12 specially equipped theaters that were able to play the movie “Fantasia” in 1940.
Talking about 1939, that was also the year the CNC was demonstrated. It was finished in 1939, but it was not demonstrated until 1940 by the same person who made the Model K, George Stibitz. He demonstrated it in New York City at the American Mathematical Society conference held at Dartmouth College and stunned the group by using the CNC to perform calculations with a teletype terminal connected to special telephone lines. This is likely the first example of remote access computing.
Now lets go to 1941 when the Z3 computer was finshed by Konrad Zuse the Z3 was an early computer built by German engineer Konrad Zuse. He worked on it without help or ideas from other computer projects. The Z3 used 2,300 relays, did calculations in binary floating point, and had a 22 bit word length. It was used to do aerodynamic calculations. In late 1943, it was destroyed during an air raid on Berlin. In the 1960s, Zuse helped rebuild the Z3, and this rebuilt version is now on display at the Deutsches Museum in Munich, the exact same year that the first Bombe was made. The British Bombe was an electromechanical machine used in World War II to help break down Nazi Enigma coded military messages. It was designed by Alan Turing and Harold Keen of the British Tabulating Machine Company. Many Bombes were built so that the Allies could find the daily rotor starting positions for Enigma machines, which then made it possible to read German messages. The basic idea came from the earlier Polish “Bomba” machine, created in 1938 by codebreaker Marian Rejewski.
Now lets go to 1942 when the Atanasoff Berry Computer (ABC) is completed after successfully demonstrating a proof-of-concept prototype in 1939, Professor John Vincent Atanasoff secured funding to construct a full scale machine at Iowa State College (Now Iowa State University). Working with graduate student Clifford Berry, Atanasoff designed and built the machine between 1939 and 1942. The Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC) later became central to a patent dispute over the invention of the electronic digital computer. The case was settled in 1973, when it was determined that ENIAC co designer John Mauchly had examined the ABC shortly after it became operational.
Now come to 1943 when the Bell Labs Relay Interpolator is completed. The United States Army asked Bell Laboratories to make a machine to help in testing their M 9 gun director, which is a type of analog computer that aims large guns to their targets. The mathematician George Stibitz recommends using a relay based calculator for the project. The result of this was the Relay Interpolator, later named the Bell Labs Model 2. The Relay Interpolator used 440 relays, and since it was programmable by paper tape, it was used for other things after the war ended. That same year, the Curta calculator was designed by Curt Herzstark. He was an Austrian engineer, and he had worked in his family's manufacturing business all the way until 1943, when the Nazis arrested him. While imprisoned at the Buchenwald concentration camp for the remainder of World War II, he refined his pre-war design for a calculator that used a modified version of Leibniz’s “stepped drum” mechanism. After the war, Herzstark’s Curta entered history as the smallest all mechanical, four function calculator ever produced.
Now staying in 1943 Curt Herzstark designs the Curta calculator. The idea was made by a Harvard physics professor named Howard Aiken, and engineered and constructed by IBM, the Harvard Mark I was a room-sized calculator based on electromechanical relays. A fifty foot long camshaft ran the length of the machine, coordinating thousands of individual components, and it relied on 3,500 relays. The Mark I generated mathematical tables but was quickly overtaken by newer, fully electronic stored program computers.
Now come with me to 1944 when a British engineer, Tommy Flowers, built the Colossus to crack the Lorenz ciphers used by the Nazis in World War II. Ten Colossus machines were ultimately produced, each containing up to 2,500 vacuum tubes. Continuous rolls of punched paper tape carrying potential solutions to a given code were put through the machine using a system of pulleys. Colossus cut the time needed to decipher Lorenz messages from weeks down to hours. Many historians credit the Colossus machines with significantly shortening the war by revealing enemy plans and intentions. The existence of Colossus remained secret until the 1970s.
Now come to 1945 when John von Neumann writes First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC. In a widely circulated paper, mathematician John von Neumann describes the design of a stored program computer, featuring electronic storage for both instructions and data. This innovation removes the need for older, more awkward programming methods such as plugboards, punched cards, and paper tape. Born in Hungary, von Neumann showed remarkable ability across many fields, including hydrodynamics, ballistics, meteorology, game theory, statistics, and the application of mechanical devices to computation. After World War II, he focused on developing the computer at Princeton’s Institute for Advanced Study.
Now come with me to find out what happened in 1946 about computer history. A special summer school about computers was held at the University of Pennsylvania's Moore School of Electrical Engineering. It made many schools and research groups in the United States, France, the UK, and Germany start building new kinds of computers that stored their programs. Some famous early computer builders, like John von Neumann, Howard Aiken, J. Presper Eckert, and John Mauchly, gave talks there. Mathematicians such as Derrick Lehmer, George Stibitz, and Douglas Hartree were also taught. Multiple students who became important computer scientists went to this summer school. They included Maurice Wilkes, Claude Shannon, David Rees, and Jay Forrester. The free public lectures inspired the creation of new computers like the EDSAC, BINAC, and later machines based on the IAS design, such as the AVIDAC.
Now I want you to hear about this new project that had begun the same year called Project Whirlwind. Which was named that because it was a flight simulator for World War II. During the war, the US Navy had asked Massachusetts Institute of Technology to build them a flight simulator to train the bomber crews before they fight. Under the leadership of a team including Gordon Brown and Jay Forrester, they first built a small analog simulator, but it wasn’t accurate nor flexible. When they heard about the news of the groundbreaking electronic ENIAC computer that year, it made them switch to it and attempt a digital option, where flight variables could be programmed rapidly using software, which was completed in 1951. That project still is one of the most important projects in all of computer history.
Now don’t get too ready to leave, because there was another achievement: the public unveiling of ENIAC. Started in 1943, the ENIAC computing system was created by John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert while they were at the Moore School of Electrical Engineering. Since it was electronic and not electromechanical, it was over 1,000 times faster than all other computers at that time. It used panel to panel wiring and switches so it could be programmed. It also occupied over 1,000 square feet, used a jaw dropping 18,000 vacuum tubes, and weighed 30 tons. Over the ten years it was in operation, it performed more calculations than all of humanity had done up until that time.
Now let’s go away from 1946 because two years later, in 1948, when the first program ran on a computer. Some University of Manchester researchers named Frederic Williams, Tom Kilburn, and Geoff Toothill developed the SSEM, also known as the Manchester "Baby." It was built to try a memory technology that Williams and Kilburn had developed that soon was known as the Williams Tube, and it was the first high-speed electronic random access memory for computers. The first program that they made had seventeen commands written by Kilburn and ran on June 21st, 1948. This was the first program in history to run on a digital, electronic, stored program computer.
Now also in 1948, the SSEC went on display. The Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator (SSEC) project, led by the IBM engineer Wallace Eckert, used both relays and vacuum tubes to process scientific data at the rate of 50 14×14 multiplications per second. Before it was decommissioned in 1952, the SSEC made the Moon position tables used in the early planning of the 1969 Apollo missions. Those tables were confirmed by more modern computers for the real flight. The SSEC was one of the final super calculators using electromechanical technology.
Now let go to 1949 when CSIRAC had ran its first program. whilst many comuters at that time were based on familar designs like the IAS and its copies but the CSIRAC was not. it was built in Sydney, Australia by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research so they could use it in a radio phyisics lab in sydney CSIRAC was created by Trevor Pearcey and used unique 12 hole paper it was moved to the Department of Physics at the University of Melbourne in 1955 and was still in service and usable until 1964
Don’t get too ready to leave this year we still have three more things left. This one is about how EDSAC was completed. EDSAC was the first practical stored-program computer to offer a regular computing service. It was built at Cambridge University and used vacuum tubes and mercury delay lines for its memory. It had a whole team working on it, led by Cambridge professor and director of the Cambridge Computation Laboratory, Maurice Wilkes. His idea grew out of the Moore School lectures he had attended about three years earlier, and EDSAC marked a major advancement in programming.
Two more things this one is about how MADDIDA was developed. MADDIDA was a digital drum based differential analyzer. This kind of computer was effective at solving most of the mathematical formulas that scientists and engineers had to deal with in their daily work. It was actually first made for a nuclear missile design project in 1949. The team that led the project was headed by Fred Steele. MADDIDA used 53 vacuum tubes and over 100 germanium diodes, and it used a magnetic drum for memory. The tracks on the drum performed the mathematical integration. MADDIDA was flown to John von Neumann, who was very impressed by it. Northrop at first did not want to make MADDIDA a commercial product, but eventually gave in, and by the end of the year six of them had been sold.
Last thing the Manchester Mark I was completed. It was built by a team of engineers led by Frederic Williams and Tom Kilburn. The Mark I was the first prototype of Ferranti’s computer, the Ferranti Mark I. It used over 1,300 vacuum tubes and filled a medium sized room. It used the Williams Kilburn tube for memory, and its design was adopted by several other early computers around the world.
Now let’s go to 1950, when the ERA 1101 was introduced. It was a commercially produced computer actually one of the first computers to be sold commercially and the company’s first customer was the U.S. Navy. It was designed by ERA but constructed by Remington Rand. The ERA 1101 was intended for high-speed computing and could store 1 million bits on a magnetic drum. It was one of the earliest computers to use a magnetic drum, and ERA relied so heavily on this design that they continued to use its concepts in their computers into the 1960s.
Staying in 1950, this is when the NPL Pilot ACE was completed. It was based on ideas from Alan Turing and was constructed at the National Physical Laboratory. “We are trying to build a machine to do all kinds of different things simply by programming rather than by the addition of extra apparatus,” Turing said at a symposium on large scale digital calculating machinery in 1947 in Cambridge, Massachusetts. In a comparatively small 12 square feet, the design contained 800 vacuum tubes.
Let’s stay in the same year and talk about how the SEAC and the SWAC were completed. The Standards Eastern Automatic Computer, also known as the SEAC, was part of the beginning era of stored-program computers built in the U.S. It was constructed in Washington, D.C., and was intended for use as a test bed for checking components and operating systems, as well as for setting computer standards for the years to come. On top of that, it was also among the first computers to use all-diode logic, which was much more reliable than the vacuum tubes that had been used before. The world’s first scanned digital image was made on SEAC by engineer Russell Kirsch in 1957. Now that was the SEAC this next one is the SWAC. The National Bureau of Standards (now the National Institute of Standards and Technology) also created this computer, called the Standards Western Automatic Computer. It was built on the UCLA campus. Unlike the SEAC, it wasn’t used for testing components, because it was built using already developed hardware. Instead, it was used for numerical analysis, including developing climate models and discovering five new Mersenne prime numbers.
Now let’s go to 1951, when the Ferranti Mark I was sold. The title of first commercially available general purpose computer goes to the Ferranti Mark I because it sold its first Mark I to Manchester University. The Mark I was an improved and refined version of the Manchester Baby and the Manchester Mark I. At Manchester, the British government contract spurred its initial development, but once that ended the group lost funding, and the Mark II had to be sold at a loss.
Talking about 1951, that was also the year that the first UNIVAC was delivered to the U.S. Census Bureau. The UNIVAC was one of the earliest computers to attract widespread public attention. Although it was constructed by Remington Rand, it was common for people to mistakenly call it the IBM UNIVAC. The computer was used for many different tasks, and some of its biggest customers were the U.S. military and insurance companies. But that’s not all one person even used it to compile a concordance of the King James Version of the Bible. Built by the same people who created the ENIAC a few years earlier, the UNIVAC I used about 5,200 vacuum tubes and weighed about 29,000 pounds. They eventually sold about 46 UNIVAC I systems at over $1 million each. Altogether, they cost around $50 million, which is about $625.5 million in today’s money.
Now let’s go away from 1951 and travel to 1952, when the IAS computer became operational. The Institute for Advanced Study computer was a multiyear project overseen by the famous mathematician John von Neumann. The idea of storing both data and instructions in the same memory became known as the stored program concept. The machine was used for important scientific calculations and helped inspire many later computers. In the same year, under Tom Kilburn at England’s Manchester University, Richard Grimsdale and Douglas Webb built and demonstrated a prototype for a transistorized computer called the Manchester TC. It was a 48 bit computer that used 92 point contact transistors and 550 diodes.
Now let’s go to 1953, when Richard Grimsdale and Douglas Webb, working under Tom Kilburn at England’s Manchester University, built and demonstrated a prototype transistorized computer called the Manchester TC. It was a 48‑bit computer that used 92 point contact transistors and 550 diodes.
Now come with me to 1954, when the IBM 650 magnetic drum calculator was completed and introduced. IBM finished the magnetic drum calculator, and it earned the title of the first mass produced computer, with the company selling about 450 units in just one year. Its drum spun at 12,500 revolutions per minute and used magnetic drum storage, which allowed much faster access to stored information. The IBM 650 was also very popular at universities, where it helped many students learn how to program.
Now let’s go to 1955, when the English Electric DEUCE was introduced. The English Electric DEUCE was a widespread commercial version of the Pilot ACE. Its name stood for Digital Electronic Universal Computing Engine. It was usually used for scientific work, but it could also solve engineering problems and run several types of applications. About 30 DEUCE computers were built, and one was even delivered to Australia.
Now come with me to 1956, when people first discovered direct keyboard input for computers. Researchers at MIT were experimenting with typing directly into computers, which foreshadowed today’s normal way of using them. At that time, it was not common to type on a keyboard. Instead, most people used punched cards or paper tape to load programs. In February, Doug Ross wrote a memo advocating direct access. He argued that a Flexowriter, an electrically controlled typewriter, could be connected to a computer and used as a keyboard device because it was low cost and flexible. An experiment on the Whirlwind computer proved how useful a keyboard device could be.
Now let’s go to 1957, when the Digital Equipment Corporation, also known as DEC, was founded. DEC was created to build electronic modules for measurement, testing, and prototyping in both commercial and control markets. The company was started by Ken Olsen, his brother Stan Olsen, and Harlan Anderson. Its headquarters were in Maynard, Massachusetts, where it occupied about 8,000 square feet in a mill from the early 1900s that had once produced uniforms and blankets for Civil War soldiers. General Georges Doriot and his pioneering venture capital firm, American Research and Development, invested $70,000 for 70% of DEC’s stock. The old mill building is still in use today as an office park.
Now come with me to 1958, when the SAGE system went online. The SAGE system was the first large scale computer communications network, connecting about 23 hardened computer sites across the United States and Canada. Its main job was to detect Soviet bombers and direct interceptor aircraft to destroy them. Operators controlled the system by pointing a light gun at the SAGE airspace display. The air defense system used about one megawatt of power and relied on two AN/FSQ‑7 computers. Together, they used around 55,000 vacuum tubes, 175,000 diodes, and 13,000 transistors.
Now let’s go to 1960, when the DEC PDP‑1 was introduced. A typical PDP‑1 cost about $120,000 and came with a cathode‑ray tube graphics display, along with paper tape for input and output. It did not need a special cooling system and could be operated by just one person, which helped set the pattern for later modern computers. Because it had a large display, hackers who were fascinated by the machine created the first computerized video game, called Spacewar!. The PDP‑1 was even programmed to play music, and about 50 systems were sold.
Now let’s go to 1961, when the IBM 7030 was completed. IBM’s 7000‑series mainframe computers were the company’s first machines to use transistors, and the 7030 also known as Stretch was the top of the line model in the series. It included more than a dozen advanced design features, and there was even a special version called HARVEST built for the National Security Agency (NSA). The knowledge and technologies developed for the Stretch project played a major role in the design, management, and manufacture of IBM’s later System/360 family, which became the most successful computer line in the company’s history.
let’s go to 1962, when the MIT LINC was introduced. The LINC is one of the first and most important examples of a "personal computer" a computer meant to be used by just one person. It was designed by Wesley Clark, an engineer at MIT’s Lincoln Laboratory Thanks to a grant from the National Institutes of Health (NIH), science and medical teachers from all over the United States came to a special workshop at MIT. There, they got to build their very own LINC computers. When they finished, they took those computers back to their schools and labs to use for research. A company called Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) provided the parts for the LINCs, and 50 original machines were built. Later on, DEC turned the LINC into a product regular customers could buy, and sold it as the LINC-8.
Now let’s come to the year 1962 and the Atlas computer. Atlas is a joint effort of Manchester University, Ferranti Computers, and Plessey. When it comes online, Atlas is the fastest computer in the world. It introduces the idea of virtual memory, which treats disk or drum storage as an extension of main memory. Atlas is controlled by the Atlas Supervisor, a sophisticated control program that many historians consider one of the first true operating systems.
Now let’s come to the year 1964 and the CDC 6600 supercomputer. Built by Control Data Corporation, the CDC 6600 can execute up to 3 million instructions per second around three times faster than its closest rival, IBM’s 7030. It holds the title of world’s fastest computer until the CDC 7600 surpasses it in 1968. The machine’s performance comes partly from its architecture ten small peripheral processing units handle input, output, and housekeeping tasks so the central processor can focus on raw computation.
Now let’s come to the year 1964 and the DEC PDP‑8. At Canada’s Chalk River Nuclear Lab, engineers from Digital Equipment Corporation face a choice: build a custom controller for a reactor, or try something more flexible. They decide to create a small general purpose computer and program it for the job instead. A refined version becomes the PDP‑8, the first commercially successful minicomputer. Priced at about $18,000 roughly on fifth the cost of a small IBM System 360 it combines good speed with compact size and affordable pricing. Thousands of PDP‑8s are sold to factories, small businesses, and research labs around the world.
Now let’s come to the year 1964 and IBM’s System/360.On April 7, IBM announces the System 360 family, starting with five models that cover a 50 to 1 performance range. At the same event, IBM introduces 40 new peripherals for the line. Unlike earlier IBM systems, all System 360 models are designed to run essentially the same software with little modification, serving both business and scientific users. IBM invests about $5 billion in the project, but orders quickly reach 1,000 systems a month. Around this time, IBM also transitions from discrete transistors to integrated circuits, and its main revenue shifts from punched‑card equipment to fully electronic computer systems
Now let’s come to the year 1964 and SABRE. American Airlines and IBM partner to build SABRE, an airline reservation system that becomes fully operational by 1964. Although not the very first computerized reservation system, SABRE is widely publicized and highly influential. It runs on dual IBM 7090 mainframes and draws on IBM’s earlier experience with the SAGE air defense network. Over time, SABRE grows and eventually allows travelers to make reservations through online services such as CompuServe, Genie, and America Online.
Now let’s come to the year 1965 and the 3C DDP‑116. Designed by engineer Gardner Hendrie for Computer Control Corporation (CCC), the DDP‑116 is announced at the 1965 Spring Joint Computer Conference. It becomes known as the world’s first commercial 16‑bit minicomputer, and 172 systems are eventually sold. The basic configuration costs $28,500.
Now let’s come to the year 1965 and the Olivetti Programma 101. After being shown the year before at the New York World’s Fair, the Programma 101 now goes on sale. This printing, programmable calculator is built from discrete transistors and uses an acoustic delay line for memory. It can add, subtract, multiply, divide, and calculate square roots. About 40,000 units are sold, including 10 bought by NASA for the Apollo space project.
Now let’s come to the year 1966 and HP’s 2116A. Hewlett‑Packard introduces the 2116A, its first computer, created as a versatile controller for HP’s growing family of programmable test and measurement instruments. The 2116A can connect to many standard lab devices, making it easier for customers to automate their setups. It also marks one of HP’s first commercial uses of integrated circuits in a product.
Now let’s come to the year 1966 and the ILLIAC IV project. Work begins on the ILLIAC IV, a very large parallel processing computer that will not become operational until 1972. Eventually installed at NASA’s Ames Research Center in Mountain View, California, it is one of the most ambitious massively parallel computers of its time and faces many design and production problems. When completed, it can reach about 200 million instructions per second and transfer 1 billion bits per second of I/O, using 64 processing elements in a pipelined, parallel architecture.
Now let’s come to the year 1966 and the RCA Spectra series of computers. RCA announces its Spectra 70 line, which are the first large commercial computers to use integrated circuits. The company emphasizes the advantages of ICs over IBM’s custom SLT modules. Spectra systems implement the IBM System 360 instruction set and can run most IBM software with little or no modification, offering customers a compatible alternative to IBM mainframes.
Now let’s come to the year 1968 and the Apollo Guidance Computer. The Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC), designed at MIT’s Instrumentation Laboratory, is created to shrink the Apollo spacecraft computer from the size of several refrigerators to a compact unit weighing about 70 pounds and occupying less than one cubic foot. Its first flight is on Apollo 7, and in 1969 it helps guide Apollo 11 to the lunar surface. Astronauts communicate with the AGC through the DSKY (display and keyboard) unit by entering two‑digit codes, and each Earth to Moon trip requires more than 10,000 commands. The AGC is one of the earliest major uses of integrated circuits and combines core memory with read only rope memory.
Now let’s come to the year 1968 and the Data General Nova minicomputer. Data General Corporation, founded by engineers who left Digital Equipment Corporation, introduces the Nova minicomputer. The Nova ships with up to 32 KB of memory and sells for about $8,000. Edson de Castro, its main designer and a co‑founder of Data General, had previously led the team that created DEC’s PDP‑8. The Nova line continues through the 1970s and influences later systems such as the Xerox Alto and the Apple‑1.
Now let’s come to the year 1970 and the Amdahl 470. Gene Amdahl, who played a key role in creating IBM’s System 360, starts Amdahl Corporation to compete directly with IBM mainframes. The Amdahl 470V/6 is the company’s first product. It is designed to run the same software as IBM System 370 computers but at a lower cost and with strong performance, helping Amdahl establish itself as a serious alternative in the mainframe market.
Now let’s come to the year 1971 and the Kenbak‑1. The Kenbak‑1, advertised for $750 in Scientific American, is one of the earliest personal computers. Designed by John V. Blankenbaker using medium and small scale integrated circuits, it has only 256 bytes of memory and uses switches for input and indicator lights for output. Despite its pioneering role, only about 40 machines are sold, and Kenbak Corporation closes in 1973.
Now let’s come to the year 1971 and the HP‑35 handheld calculator. Hewlett‑Packard introduces the HP‑35 after co‑founder Bill Hewlett challenges engineers to fit the features of a desktop scientific calculator into a shirt pocket sized device. Marketed as a fast, highly accurate electronic slide rule, the HP‑35 can handle a wide range of logarithmic and trigonometric functions, store intermediate results, and display numbers in scientific notation. Its success makes HP a major force in the scientific calculator market for decades.
Now let’s come to the year 1971 and Intel’s 4004 microprocessor. The first advertisement for Intel’s 4004 microprocessor appears in Electronic News, introducing the world’s first commercial microprocessor. Developed for the Japanese calculator maker Busicom, the 4004 contains about 2,250 transistors and can perform up to 99,000 operations per second on 4‑bit data. Architect Ted Hoff and designer Federico Faggin lead the project, which launches the era of microprocessor‑based systems.
Now let’s come to the year 1971 and the first laser printer at Xerox PARC. Physicist Gary Starkweather at Xerox realizes that a copier’s photosensitive drum could be written to by a laser beam instead of light reflected from a document. After he transfers to Xerox PARC in 1971, away from corporate resistance, he builds the first working laser printer within a year. Used with PARC’s Alto computers and later commercialized as the Xerox 9700, the laser printer becomes the basis of a multibillion dollar printing market.
Now let’s come to the year 1973 and IBM’s SCAMP prototype. Under the leadership of Dr. Paul Friedl, IBM’s labs in Los Gatos and Palo Alto develop the SCAMP (Special Computer APL Machine Portable) as a personal computer prototype designed to run the APL language. Housed in a briefcase‑like enclosure with a keyboard, CRT display, and cassette storage, SCAMP demonstrates the practicality of a portable APL system. Friedl uses SCAMP to help win internal support for IBM’s 5100 series, which ultimately leads to the IBM PC.
Now let’s come to the year 1973 and the Micral. French company R2E releases the Micral, one of the first commercial, non‑kit personal computers based on Intel’s 8008 microprocessor. Designer Thi Truong develops the hardware, and Philippe Kahn writes the software. Aimed at replacing minicomputers in lower performance roles such as process control and toll collection, the Micral sells for about $1,750. Although it never gains a foothold in the United States, it is an important step toward affordable, microprocessor based systems.
Now let’s come to the year 1973 and the TV Typewriter. Don Lancaster publishes his design for the TV Typewriter in the September 1973 issue of Radio Electronics. This inexpensive kit lets users display alphanumeric text on an ordinary television screen using about $120 worth of electronic components. The original design can display 16 lines of 32 characters (512 characters total) and supports a cassette tape interface for additional text storage. Small television stations and hobbyists continue to use TV Typewriters well into the 1990s.
Now let’s come to the year 1973 and the Wang 2200. Wang Laboratories, already known for calculators and word processors, introduces the Wang 2200 computer. Sold mainly through value added resellers who bundle customized software, the 2200 features a built in CRT display, cassette storage, and the BASIC programming language. The system’s success helps turn Wang into a significant computer company before the arrival of the IBM PC era.
Now let’s come to the year 1974 and the Scelbi 8H. Scelbi Computer Consulting advertises the Scelbi 8H, one of the first American microcomputers based on Intel’s 8008 processor. Sold both as a kit and fully assembled, the system comes with 4 KB of memory and interfaces for cassette tape, Teletype machines, and oscilloscopes. Aimed at scientific, engineering, and biological applications, the 8H is followed by the 8B model with 16 KB of memory, but only about 200 Scelbi systems are ultimately sold.
Now let’s come to the year 1974 and the Mark‑8. John Titus designs the Mark‑8 “Do It Yourself” computer kit around the Intel 8008 microprocessor. It appears on the cover of the July 1974 issue of Radio‑Electronics, months before the Altair 8800 hits Popular Electronics. Hobbyists can order the plans for $5 and buy blank circuit boards for $50. The Mark‑8 helps spark grassroots interest in building home microcomputers.
Now let’s come to the year 1974 and the Xerox Alto. Xerox PARC introduces the Alto, a revolutionary computer based on a graphical user interface with overlapping windows, icons, and a mouse. Altos are networked over Ethernet, can share files, and can print to advanced laser printers. Among its innovative software are the Bravo WYSIWYG word processor, painting and graphics tools, and email. The Alto directly inspires later systems such as Apple’s Lisa and Macintosh computers.
Now let’s come to the year 1975 and the MITS Altair 8800. The January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics features the Altair 8800 kit on its cover, igniting huge interest in home computers. Created by Ed Roberts of MITS, the Altair sells for $297 in kit form or $395 with a case and comes with 256 bytes of memory, expandable to 64 KB, and an open 100‑line bus that becomes the S‑100 standard. Bill Gates and Paul Allen provide a BASIC interpreter as the main language, marking Microsoft’s early success. In 1977, MITS is sold to Pertec, but the Altair remains a key milestone in personal computing.
Now let’s come to the year 1975 and the MOS Technology 6502. Chuck Peddle and a small team of former Motorola engineers introduce the low‑cost MOS 6502 microprocessor at a San Francisco conference for only $25, far below competing chips. Some attendees initially suspect the price must be a hoax. The 6502 quickly becomes popular in many early personal computers such as the Apple II and Commodore PET, and later in game consoles like the Nintendo Entertainment System. Variants of the 6502 architecture are still used in embedded systems decades later.
Now let’s come to the year 1975 and the SWTPC 6800. Southwest Technical Products Corporation (SWTPC), founded by Daniel Meyer to provide electronics kits, introduces the SWTPC 6800 computer based on Motorola’s 6800 processor. One of many SWTPC kits, the 6800 becomes the company’s most popular computer. These kits give electronics hobbyists a practical way to build and experiment with their own microcomputers at home.
Now let’s come to the year 1975 and the Tandem‑16. Tandem Computers releases the Tandem16, one of the first commercial computers built specifically for fault‑tolerant online transaction processing. Designed to keep running even during repairs or expansion, it quickly gains favor in the banking industry. The Tandem‑16 leads to the later NonStop series, which are used for early ATMs and for monitoring stock trades.
Now let’s come to the year 1976 and the Video Display Module, the VDM‑1. Computer designer Lee Felsenstein creates the VDM‑1, an early memory mapped alphanumeric video display card for personal computers. Introduced at the 1976 Altair Convention in Albuquerque, it provides a practical video output solution for hobbyist microcomputer systems. The VDM‑1 becomes the display foundation for the SOL‑20 computer.
Now let’s come to the year 1976 and the Cray‑1 supercomputer. The Cray‑1, designed by Seymour Cray, becomes the fastest computer in the world. Its C‑shaped cabinet shortens wire lengths to reduce signal delays, while tightly packed integrated circuits and a Freon‑based cooling system increase speed and reliability. Each Cray‑1 costs about $10 million and takes a year to assemble and test. Typical uses include US national defense simulations, nuclear weapons design, and advanced weather forecasting.
Now let’s come to the year 1976 and the Intel 8080 and Zilog Z‑80. Intel’s 8080 microprocessor offers roughly five times the speed of the earlier 8008 and can address up to 64 KB of memory, making it ideal for early microcomputers. Zilog responds with the Z‑80, a processor that can run 8080 software but adds many new instructions and features. The Z‑80 becomes the heart of numerous personal computers and embedded systems.
Now let’s come to the year 1976 and the Apple‑1. Steve Wozniak designs the Apple‑1 as a single‑board computer, and Steve Jobs arranges to sell assembled boards to The Byte Shop in Mountain View, which orders 50 systems. To fill the order, they form Apple Computer, Inc. About 200 Apple‑1 boards are eventually produced before Apple introduces the Apple II the next year as a polished, ready‑to‑use consumer computer.
Now let’s come to the year 1977 and the Apple II. Apple releases the Apple II as a complete personal computer package that includes a main logic board, switching power supply, keyboard, plastic case, game paddles, and a cassette tape containing the game Breakout. When connected to a color TV, it displays bright color graphics that stand out for the time. Millions of Apple IIs are sold between 1977 and 1993, and Apple donates thousands to schools, giving many students their first access to personal computers.
Now let’s come to the year 1977 and the TRS‑80. Tandy Radio Shack introduces the TRS‑80 desktop computer, predicting sales of 3,000 units in its first year, but 10,000 are sold in the first month alone. Priced at $599.95, the TRS‑80 includes a Z80 processor, video display, 4 KB of memory, cassette storage, and a built‑in BASIC interpreter, along with beginner friendly manuals. It becomes popular in schools and homes, and the TRS‑80 line later expands to include color and portable models.
Now let’s come to the year 1977 and the Commodore PET. Commodore introduces the PET (Personal Electronic Transactor), a fully assembled personal computer offered with 4 or 8 KB of memory, a built‑in cassette tape drive, and a compact “chiclet” keyboard. Using a MOS 6502 processor running at 1 MHz, the PET gains popularity in schools and among home users. Its success helps establish Commodore as a major force in the PC market into the 1990s.
Now let’s come to the year 1978 and the DEC VAX‑11/780. Digital Equipment Corporation unveils the VAX‑11/780, the first system in its VAX family. VAX computers rival mainframes in performance and can address over 4 GB of virtual memory, far more than most minicomputers. As “complex instruction set computers,” they remain compatible with earlier DEC software, protecting customers’ investments. VAX systems become a standard platform for industry, science, engineering, and research, helping DEC grow into the world’s second‑largest computer company.
Now let’s come to the year 1979 and the Atari 400 and 800 computers. After launching the Atari VCS game console, Atari designs two microcomputers with strong game capabilities the Atari 400 and Atari 800. The 400 is aimed mainly at gaming, while the 800 serves more as a home computer. Competing with systems like the Apple II, Commodore PET, and TRS‑80, Atari’s 8‑bit machines become especially influential in computer graphics and in the emerging demo scene.
Now let’s come to the year 1979 and the Motorola 68000 microprocessor. Motorola introduces the 68000 microprocessor, which delivers much higher performance than many of its contemporaries. Its powerful 16/32‑bit architecture makes it ideal for workstations that run graphics‑intensive engineering and scientific applications. The 68000 will later be used in several important personal computers, including the Apple Macintosh.
Now let’s come to the year 1979 and the Texas Instruments TI‑99/4. Texas Instruments releases the TI‑99/4 microcomputer based on its TMS 9900 processor running at 3 MHz, one of the fastest CPUs available in a home computer at the time. A wide range of expansion boards is offered, including a popular speech synthesis module that also works with TI’s Speak & Spell educational toy. The TI‑99/4 sells well and leads to additional TI home computers.
Now let’s come to the year 1980 and the Commodore VIC‑20. Commodore introduces the VIC‑20 as a lower‑cost, consumer‑friendly successor to the PET. Aimed squarely at the home market, it becomes the first computer to sell more than one million units. Commodore even hires Star Trek actor William Shatner to appear in advertisements, helping to popularize the VIC‑20 as a family computer.
Now let’s come to the year 1980 and the Sinclair ZX80. In the United Kingdom, Sinclair Research releases the ZX80, a very small and affordable home computer. Sold as a kit for £79 or pre assembled for £99, it uses a Z80 microprocessor and includes a built‑in BASIC interpreter. Output is displayed on a household television via an adapter. About 50,000 ZX80s are sold, mainly to hobbyists, and demand is high enough at first to create long waiting lists.
Now let’s come to the year 1981 and the BBC’s Computer Programme and BBC Micro. The British Broadcasting Corporation launches “The Computer Programme” as part of its Computer Literacy Project, aimed at introducing adults to computing. Acorn Computers designs the BBC Microcomputer System so viewers can follow along at home. The BBC Micro is expandable, with ports for cassette storage, serial connections, and simple networking. A wide range of educational, productivity, and game software is created for it, and it becomes a standard in UK schools.
Now let’s come to the year 1981 and the Apollo DN100 workstation. Apollo Computer unveils its first workstation, the DN100, built around the Motorola 68000 microprocessor. It features a high‑resolution display and built‑in networking, three key traits that define later workstations. Optimized for demanding graphics and engineering applications, Apollo’s systems compete closely with Sun Microsystems and help shape the workstation market for the next decade.
Now let’s come to the year 1981 and the IBM Personal Computer. IBM introduces its Model 5150, better known as the IBM PC, powered by a 4.77 MHz Intel 8088 processor and running Microsoft’s MS‑DOS operating system. Backed by IBM’s brand and a major marketing campaign, the PC quickly gains traction in business and becomes the reference design for a whole ecosystem of compatible machines. Its open architecture encourages third‑party software and hardware, setting the pattern for the modern PC industry.
Now let’s come to the year 1981 and the Osborne 1. The Osborne 1 appears as one of the first mass‑produced portable computers. Weighing about 24 pounds and costing $1,795, it includes a 5 inch screen, 64 KB of memory, a modem, and two 5.25 inch floppy drives. The bundle also comes with productivity software worth roughly $1,500 on its own, making the machine attractive to early mobile professionals.
Now let’s come to the year 1982 and the Commodore 64.Commodore releases the Commodore 64, or C64, with 64 KB of RAM, strong color graphics, and advanced sound for its time. Priced at $595, it supports thousands of games and applications over its long life. By the time production ends in 1993, more than 22 million units have been sold, and it is recognized as the best selling single computer model ever.
Now let’s come to the year 1982 and the Franklin Apple II “clones.” Franklin Computer Corporation introduces the Ace series, machines whose main logic boards closely copy Apple II designs. By undercutting Apple’s prices and adding features, Franklin’s systems attract attention and spark legal battles. Although Franklin initially wins a case allowing them to continue, Apple eventually prevails in a 1988 copyright lawsuit, forcing Franklin to stop making Apple II clones.
Now let’s come to the year 1982 and the founding of Sun Microsystems. Sun Microsystems grows out of a Stanford University workstation prototype designed by Andy Bechtolsheim, based on the idea of a powerful networked workstation. Bechtolsheim, Vinod Khosla, and Scott McNealy incorporate the company, soon joined by Berkeley UNIX developer Bill Joy. With a focus on Ethernet networking, high resolution graphics, and UNIX, Sun helps define the modern engineering workstation and popularizes the idea that “the network is the computer.”
Now let’s come to the year 1983 and the Apple Lisa. Apple introduces the Lisa, the first commercial personal computer with a graphical user interface. Powered by a Motorola 68000 and equipped with 1 MB of RAM, a 12‑inch black‑and‑white display, dual 5.25 inch floppy drives, and a 5 MB hard drive, Lisa brings windows, icons, and menus to a broader audience. Its GUI is heavily inspired by earlier work at Xerox PARC, and it paves the way for later systems like the Macintosh and Microsoft Windows.
Now let’s come to the year 1983 and the Compaq Portable. Compaq releases the Compaq Portable, promoted as the first 100% IBM PC‑compatible portable computer. It can run the same software as the IBM PC, thanks in part to a legally reverse‑engineered BIOS and MS‑DOS licensing from Microsoft. With first year sales of $111 million, Compaq’s success shows that high‑quality PC clones can thrive, and it accelerates the growth of the IBM‑compatible market.
Now let’s come to the year 1984 and the Apple Macintosh. Apple launches the Macintosh with a high‑profile Super Bowl advertisement that compares IBM to “Big Brother” and portrays the Mac as a liberating force. Using a Motorola 68000 processor and a graphical user interface controlled by a mouse, the Macintosh ships with MacPaint and MacWrite, showcasing WYSIWYG graphics and word processing. Priced at $2,500, it popularizes the mouse driven GUI for personal computing.
Now let’s come to the year 1984 and IBM’s PC Jr. and PC/AT. IBM attempts to enter the home market with the PC Jr., but its high price, limited performance, and unpopular “chiclet” keyboard lead to poor sales. In contrast, the PC/AT, aimed at business users, becomes a major success. It offers more memory, expanded storage, and support for high‑density 1.2 MB floppy disks, selling in the millions and strengthening IBM’s position in the corporate PC world.
Now let’s come to the year 1985 and PC’s Limited, later known as Dell.College student Michael Dell founds PC’s Limited in his University of Texas dorm room, assembling IBM PC compatible systems from standard components and selling them directly to customers. In 1985, the company releases the Turbo PC, its first in house design, priced at $795. Dell soon leaves school to focus on the rapidly growing business, which becomes a leading PC manufacturer by the early 1990s.
Now let’s come to the year 1985 and the Amiga 1000. Commodore announces the Amiga 1000 with a high profile event at New York’s Lincoln Center featuring celebrities like Andy Warhol and Debbie Harry. Priced at $1,295 without a monitor, the Amiga 1000 offers advanced graphics and audio capabilities that surpass most contemporary personal computers. It builds a devoted user base, and its design allows easy expansion with add on components.
Now let’s come to the year 1986 and the Compaq Deskpro 386. Compaq beats IBM to market with the Deskpro 386, the first PC based on Intel’s 32‑bit 80386 microprocessor. With about 275,000 transistors and performance on par with older minicomputers and mainframes, the 80386 makes advanced graphical operating environments possible on PCs. Its dual operating modes support both compatibility with older x86 chips and access to more modern features, forming the foundation for later versions of Microsoft Windows and IBM OS/2.
Now let’s come to the year 1986 and IBM’s PC‑RT. IBM releases the PC‑RT, one of the first commercial workstations to use a reduced instruction set computer (RISC) architecture. Equipped with 1 MB of RAM, a 1.2 MB floppy drive, and a 40 MB hard drive, it can perform around 2 million instructions per second. Although not the fastest RISC machine available, it helps introduce RISC concepts to the broader workstation market.
Now let’s come to the year 1986 and the Connection Machine CM‑1. Thinking Machines Corporation, led by Daniel Hillis, unveils the Connection Machine CM‑1, a massively parallel computer that pushes artificial intelligence research. The CM‑1 can use up to 65,536 one bit processors connected in a flexible network that can be reconfigured by software. This architecture allows the machine to handle problems that can be split across many processors, reaching performance of several billion operations per second.
Now let’s come to the year 1987 and the Acorn Archimedes. Acorn Computers introduces the Archimedes, the first system built around Acorn’s ARM RISC microprocessor. Sold primarily in the UK, the Archimedes line eventually grows to nearly 20 models and is widely used in education and multimedia applications. Acorn later spins off ARM as a separate company, whose low power, high performance designs become central to mobile and embedded computing worldwide
Now let’s come to the year 1987 and IBM’s Personal System/2 line. IBM launches the PS/2 family, its first systems to include Intel’s 80386 processor. More than one million units ship in the first year. IBM also introduces the OS/2 operating system and helps standardize features such as the 3.5 inch floppy disk and VGA graphics. The PS/2 line is IBM’s attempt to regain control over the PC market in the face of widespread cloning of the original IBM PC design.
Now let’s come to the year 1988 and the NeXT Cube. After leaving Apple, Steve Jobs founds NeXT and introduces the NeXT Cube, an all‑black workstation with three Motorola processors, 8 MB of RAM, and a starting price of $6,500. It includes a magneto optical drive, a digital signal processor, and the NeXTSTEP operating system, an object‑oriented, multitasking environment known for rapid application development. NeXTSTEP later evolves into OPENSTEP and forms the foundation for Apple’s Mac OS X after Apple acquires NeXT in 1996.
Now let’s come to the year 1988 and the Laser 128. Hong Kong‑based VTech launches the Laser 128, an Apple II compatible computer. Instead of copying Apple’s BIOS directly, VTech reverse engineers it, allowing them to sell the Laser 128 legally in the US for about $479, significantly cheaper than comparable Apple models. Apple’s attempts to remove it from the market fail, making the Laser 128 one of the few successful Apple II clones.
Now let’s come to the year 1989 and Intel’s 80486 microprocessor. Intel releases the 80486 CPU and the i860 RISC coprocessor, each surpassing one million transistors on a single chip. The 486’s architecture is similar to the 386, but it adds an on chip cache, an optional on chip floating point unit, and an improved bus interface. These changes roughly double performance over the 386 at the same clock speed, helping drive more capable PCs and workstations.
Now let’s come to the year 1989 and the Macintosh Portable. Apple introduces the Macintosh Portable, its first true portable Mac, five years after the original desktop Macintosh. Weighing about 16 pounds and costing around $6,500, it features an active matrix display, a removable trackball, and strong performance for its time. Despite positive technical reviews, its high price and bulk limit sales, and Apple discontinues the line in less than two years.
Now let’s come to the year 1990 and Intel’s Touchstone Delta supercomputer. The Intel Touchstone Delta system, reaching about 32 gigaflops, comes online with 512 independent processors arranged in a two‑dimensional mesh network. Researchers at Caltech use it for projects such as real time satellite image processing and molecular simulations for AIDS research. The Delta’s architecture becomes the model for several later multi‑processor supercomputers that rank among the fastest in the world.
Now let’s come to the year 1991 and Babbage’s Difference Engine No. 2. At London’s Science Museum, a team led by curator Doron Swade builds Charles Babbage’s Difference Engine No. 2 using only techniques and tolerances that would have been available in the 19th century. Completed after six years of work, the machine proves that Babbage’s original design was sound and could have been constructed in his lifetime. The successful build confirms Babbage’s status as a pioneer of mechanical computing.
Now let’s come to the year 1991 and Apple’s PowerBook laptops. Apple releases the first PowerBook series, a complete redesign of its earlier Macintosh Portable. The PowerBook 100, 140, and 170 all feature built in trackballs, internal floppy drives, and palm rests, establishing the laptop layout that becomes standard in the 1990s. The 170, with its active matrix screen and faster processor, anchors the high end, while the line as a whole helps define modern notebook design until the PowerBook brand is retired in 2006.
Now let’s come to the year 1992 and DEC’s Alpha chip architecture. Digital Equipment Corporation announces the Alpha architecture, a 64‑bit RISC microprocessor line intended to replace its 32 bit VAX systems. Alpha chips power DEC workstations, servers, and several supercomputers, including the Chinese Sunway Blue Light and the Swiss Gigabooster. After DEC is acquired by Compaq, and later aligned with Intel, the Alpha line is gradually phased out in favor of other architectures such as Itanium.
Now let’s come to the year 1992 and the Intel Paragon supercomputer. Based on Intel’s earlier Touchstone Delta design, the Intel Paragon uses 2,048 Intel i860 processors at first, later expanded to more than 4,000 in some systems. Over one hundred Paragons are installed around the world, with some costing as much as $5 million. The Paragon at Caltech is recognized as the world’s fastest supercomputer in 1992 and supports research in areas such as climate modeling, ocean circulation, and energy studies.
Now let’s come to the year 1993 and the Apple Newton. Apple enters the handheld computing market with the Newton, a device the company calls a Personal Digital Assistant (PDA). The Newton includes a touch sensitive screen and handwriting recognition software, along with personal information management tools. Although its handwriting recognition is widely criticized and sales remain below expectations, the Newton helps define the PDA concept and influences later handheld devices before being discontinued in 1998.
Now let’s come to the year 1993 and Intel’s Pentium microprocessor. Intel introduces the Pentium, the fifth generation of its x86 processor family that underpins IBM PC compatible computers. The Pentium can execute multiple instructions in parallel and offers improved support for graphics and audio, delivering much higher performance than its 486 predecessors. It quickly becomes the standard CPU in mainstream desktop and laptop PCs throughout the mid 1990s.
Now let’s come to the year 1994 and Acorn’s RISC PC. Acorn Computers replaces its Archimedes line with the RISC PC, built around the ARMv3 RISC microprocessor and running Acorn’s RISC OS. The RISC PC is popular in the UK for broadcast television graphics and music production, thanks to its strong multimedia capabilities. With an optional Acorn PC card, it can also run PC compatible software, bridging the gap between the Acorn and IBM compatible worlds.
Now let’s come to the year 1995 and the BeBox computer. Be Inc., founded by former Apple executive Jean Louis Gassée and other veterans of Apple, NeXT, and Sun, releases the BeBox workstation. Powered by dual PowerPC 603 CPUs and equipped with numerous I/O ports, the BeBox is initially aimed at software developers. Although fewer than 2,000 units are produced before Be stops making hardware in 1997, its BeOS operating system gains a loyal following for its responsiveness and multimedia performance.
Now let’s come to the year 1995 and IBM’s ThinkPad 701C. IBM introduces the ThinkPad 701C laptop, best known for its ingenious “TrackWrite” or “Butterfly” keyboard. The keyboard is made of three interlocking pieces that slide out as the laptop lid is opened, forming a full sized keyboard that extends beyond the width of the case. As laptop screens and cases become wider, the need for this mechanism fades, but the 701C remains one of the most iconic laptop designs.
Now let’s come to the year 1996 and the Palm Pilot. Palm Inc., founded by Ed Colligan, Donna Dubinsky, and Jeff Hawkins, releases its first handheld organizers, the Palm 1000 and 5000. Based on a Motorola processor running at 16 MHz, the Palm devices use a stylus and a simplified handwriting system called Graffiti for fast text input. They can synchronize contacts, calendars, and notes with desktop computers over a serial connection, leading Palm to describe them as “connected organizers” rather than just PDAs.
Now let’s come to the year 1996 and the launch of Sony’s VAIO line. Sony introduces the VAIO brand to enter the global PC market after previously selling computers mainly in Japan. The first VAIO desktop features a 3D graphical interface layered on top of Windows 95 to make computers more approachable for new users. Over time, VAIO laptops become known for their focus on multimedia and communications, often including TV tuners, web cameras, and handwriting recognition. The line continues until Sony sells the brand in 2014.
Now let’s come to the year 1997 and the ASCI Red supercomputer. Built by IBM for the US Department of Energy’s Advanced Strategic Computing Initiative, ASCI Red is delivered to Sandia National Laboratories. Based on concepts from the Intel Paragon, it becomes the first computer to achieve sustained performance above one teraflop and later more than a teraflop and beyond, reaching about 1.3 trillion calculations per second. ASCI Red is used to simulate and analyze the US nuclear arsenal after underground nuclear testing is banned.
Now let’s come to the year 1998 and Linux‑based supercomputing. At the University of New Mexico, David A. Bader builds the first supercomputer that combines the Linux operating system, off the shelf hardware, and a high speed, low latency interconnect network. From this successful prototype, Bader leads the creation of "RoadRunner," the first Linux supercomputer available for open use by the broader scientific community through the National Science Foundation’s National Technology Grid. Within a decade, this clustered Linux architecture becomes the dominant design for most of the world’s top supercomputers.
Now let’s come to the year 1998 and Apple’s iMac. Apple, under the returned leadership of Steve Jobs, launches the iMac in its distinctive Bondi Blue, all in one design. Priced at about $1,300, the iMac includes a 233 MHz PowerPC G3 processor, 4 GB hard drive, 32 MB of RAM, a CD ROM drive, and a 15 inch monitor. It is noted for its simplicity and ease of setup, with a user manual that contains only a few pictures and fewer than 20 words. The iMac becomes a key product in Apple’s turnaround from near bankruptcy.
Now let’s come to the year 2000 and the first camera phone, the J‑Phone J‑SH04. In Japan, SoftBank (then J‑Phone) introduces the J‑SH04, a Sharp built mobile phone with a built in digital camera. Its camera has a maximum resolution of 0.11 megapixels and a 256‑color display, and users can share photos wirelessly. The quick success of the J‑Phone line leads to rapid adoption of camera phones worldwide, eventually prompting some countries to introduce regulations on their us
Now let’s come to the year 2002 and the Earth Simulator supercomputer. The Japanese government completes the Earth Simulator, a massively parallel, vector based supercomputer designed primarily for global climate modeling. Built by NEC around its SX‑6 architecture at a cost of roughly 60 billion yen (about $600 million at the time), the system occupies a specially constructed, earthquake‑resistant building with rubber isolation supports. From 2002 to 2004, the Earth Simulator is ranked as the fastest supercomputer in the world.
Now let’s come to the year 2002 and the Handspring Treo smartphone. After leaving Palm, Ed Colligan, Donna Dubinsky, and Jeff Hawkins found Handspring and eventually introduce the Treo line of smartphones. The Treo combines a mobile phone, a built in keyboard, a camera, and the Palm operating system in a single device. It sells well and helps define the early smartphone category, continuing until Handspring is acquired by Palm in 2003.
Now let’s come to the year 2003 and Apple’s PowerMac G5. Apple releases the PowerMac G5, housed in a distinctive anodized aluminum tower case and promoted as the first 64 bit personal computer. At the time of its introduction, it is the most powerful Macintosh ever built. Although physically larger than previous G4 towers and offering less room for internal expansion, the G5’s performance is impressive enough that Virginia Tech uses more than a thousand of them to build the System X cluster, which ranks third on the TOP500 list of the world’s fastest supercomputers in November 2003.
Now let’s come to the year 2003 and Apple’s PowerMac G5. Apple releases the PowerMac G5, housed in a distinctive anodized aluminum tower case and promoted as the first 64 bit personal computer. At the time of its introduction, it is the most powerful Macintosh ever built. Although physically larger than previous G4 towers and offering less room for internal expansion, the G5’s performance is impressive enough that Virginia Tech uses more than a thousand of them to build the System X cluster, which ranks third on the TOP500 list of the world’s fastest supercomputers in November 2003.
Now let’s come to the year 2005 and the Arduino platform. Originating at the Interaction Design Institute Ivrea in Italy, Arduino begins as a low‑cost hardware platform for students and designers. Each credit‑card‑sized board includes an inexpensive microcontroller and simple connectors for sensors and actuators, making it ideal for building projects that interact with the physical world. With a Java‑based development environment and a shared library of code called Wiring, Arduino soon becomes the core hardware of the global “Maker” movement.
Now let’s come to the year 2005 and Lenovo’s purchase of IBM’s PC business. Lenovo, already China’s largest PC manufacturer, acquires IBM’s personal computer division, including the well known ThinkPad line and worldwide sales channels. Nearly 25 years after IBM launched the original PC, the company has become just one of many players in a crowded market, and the sale marks a major shift in the industry. With this acquisition, Lenovo quickly becomes one of the world’s largest PC makers and later also buys IBM’s server business.
Now let’s come to the year 2005 and NASA’s Columbia supercomputer. NASA Ames Research Center installs the Columbia supercomputer, built from SGI Altix systems, and names it in honor of the Space Shuttle Columbia, which was lost in 2003. Columbia provides a ten fold increase in NASA’s supercomputing capacity. It is used to analyze the shuttle disaster, study space vehicle designs, and support astrophysics, weather, and ocean modeling. At installation, Columbia is ranked as the world’s second‑fastest supercomputer.
Now let’s come to the year 2006 and the One Laptop Per Child initiative. At the World Economic Forum in Davos, the United Nations Development Program announces support for a project to bring low‑cost computers and educational resources to schools in the least developed countries. This effort becomes the One Laptop per Child (OLPC) initiative, founded by Nicholas Negroponte of MIT’s Media Lab. The first OLPC machines are sold under a “give one, get one” model, where each purchase funds a laptop for a child in a developing nation. By 2011, more than 2.4 million XO laptops have been shipped.
Now let’s come to the year 2007 and the Amazon Kindle. Amazon introduces the first Kindle, a dedicated electronic reading device that finally gains wide consumer acceptance where earlier e readers struggled. The Kindle connects wirelessly to Amazon’s online bookstore and also includes an SD memory card slot for expanded storage. Initial demand is so strong that new orders are delayed, and later Kindle models add more advanced audio and video features while maintaining a focus on reading.
Now let’s come to the year 2007 and the Apple iPhone. Apple launches the iPhone, combining a mobile phone, music player, and internet device in a single touchscreen system. Users can install additional applications from Apple’s online App Store, turning the phone into a flexible platform for countless tasks. With features such as GPS, a built in camera, visual voicemail, web browsing, and a touch‑based interface, the iPhone helps define the modern smartphone era.
Now let’s come to the year 2008 and the MacBook Air. Apple introduces the MacBook Air, one of the first widely available ultra‑thin notebooks. It borrows many technologies from the existing MacBook line such as Wi‑Fi networking and an integrated webcam but focuses on extreme portability and long battery life. To save space and improve durability, Apple replaces the traditional spinning hard drive with a solid state drive, making the Air one of the first mass market computers to ship with flash storage as its primary disk.
Now let’s come to the year 2009 and IBM’s Roadrunner supercomputer. IBM’s Roadrunner becomes the first computer to achieve sustained performance of one petaflop, or one thousand trillion floating point operations per second. It uses a hybrid design that combines AMD Opteron processors with IBM POWER XCell 8i accelerators. Roadrunner is used to model the aging US nuclear arsenal, analyze large financial datasets, and generate real‑time 3D medical images. A related version of the Cell processor also powers Sony’s PlayStation 3 game console.
Now let’s come to the year 2009 and the Jaguar supercomputer at Oak Ridge. Originally built as a Cray XT3, Jaguar is upgraded at Oak Ridge National Laboratory into a massively parallel Linux supercomputer with up to 10 petabytes of storage. Costing more than $100 million, Jaguar supports large scale simulations in climate science, seismology, and astrophysics. It becomes the world’s fastest supercomputer from November 2009 to June 2010.
Now let’s come to the year 2010 and Apple’s Retina display. Building on a long focus on high quality graphics, Apple introduces the Retina display in its mobile devices, and by 2012 it appears in MacBook Pro laptops and iPads. With pixel densities of up to about 400 pixels per inch, Retina screens approach the limit at which individual pixels are visible to the human eye at normal viewing distances. Using IPS (In Plane Switching) technology, these displays also offer wide viewing angles and accurate color reproduction, and they soon become standard across many Apple product lines.
Now let’s come to the year 2010 and China’s Tianhe supercomputers. China’s National University of Defense Technology develops the Tianhe‑1 and its faster successor Tianhe‑1A, supercomputers whose name translates to “Milky Way 1.” Tianhe‑1 uses Intel Xeon processors paired with AMD graphics processing units (GPUs), while Tianhe‑1A switches to NVIDIA Tesla GPUs and adds more than 2,000 SPARC‑based Fei Tang processors. With peak performance over a petaflop, the machines support large scale simulations, including solar energy research and complex molecular studies.
Now let’s come to the year 2010 and the Apple iPad. Apple releases the iPad, a tablet computer that combines many features of the iPhone such as a high resolution touchscreen, access to the iTunes Store, and multimedia playback with a larger 9 inch display and no built in phone. The iPad quickly finds uses in entertainment, education, and business. Its apps and accessories support activities from drawing and music creation to inventory control and point of sale systems.
Now let’s come to the year 2011 and IBM’s Sequoia supercomputer. IBM delivers the Sequoia system to Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, built using the Blue Gene/Q architecture. With 98,304 PowerPC based compute chips, Sequoia becomes the world’s fastest supercomputer in 2012, yet it uses relatively little power for its performance level. It handles demanding workloads such as nuclear weapons simulations, human genome analysis, and global climate research.
Now let’s come to the year 2011 and the Nest Learning Thermostat. Nest Labs introduces the Nest Learning Thermostat, an early example of the “Internet of Things,” in which everyday devices are connected and remotely controllable. The thermostat can be adjusted over the internet with a smartphone or tablet and can email monthly energy usage reports to help users save on power. By observing and learning from a household’s temperature preferences over several days, it begins to automatically manage heating and cooling for comfort and efficiency.
Now let’s come to the year 2012 and the Raspberry Pi. The Raspberry Pi Foundation in the UK releases the Raspberry Pi, a credit card sized computer designed to promote computing and programming education. The low cost board is easy to use, supports common peripherals, and runs popular operating systems based on Linux. Demand is enormous: by late 2013, over two million units have been shipped, and the Raspberry Pi becomes a favorite among students, hobbyists, and makers.
Now let’s come to the year 2014 and the Micro Mote from the University of Michigan. Researchers at the University of Michigan complete the Micro Mote, a computer measuring just over one cubic millimeter and billed as the world’s smallest computer. Each mote has a tiny battery and a photocell that can harvest light to provide the minuscule power it needs around one trillionth of a watt. Early versions can measure temperature or pressure or capture images, and later variants detect sounds, light levels, position, and even brain activity. Because they are extremely small and inexpensive, these motes often called “smart dust” can be scattered in large numbers to monitor environments.
Now let’s come to the year 2015 and the Apple Watch. Apple introduces the Apple Watch, bringing a full computer into a wristwatch form factor. Running a version of iOS and tightly integrated with iPhones and Mac computers, the watch includes sensors for health and environmental monitoring, such as heart‑rate tracking and motion detection. Nearly a million units are ordered on its first day of availability. While praised for its design and capabilities, the Apple Watch also draws criticism for its relatively high price and limited battery life.
That is the end of my passion project. it was one of the longest projects that i have done and it took me over 200+ hours to finsh this one project so i hope that you have learned a thing or two about computer history.